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What Was Coco Chanel's Profession Before Becoming a Fashion Designer?

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French fashion designer

Coco Chanel
Coco Chanel, 1920.jpg

Chanel in 1920
Born

Gabrielle Bonheur Chanel


(1883-08-19)19 Baronial 1883[1]

Saumur, France
Died ten Jan 1971(1971-01-10) (aged 87)

Paris, France
Resting identify Bois-de-Vaux Cemetery, Lausanne, Switzerland
Occupation
  • Milliner
  • dressmaker
  • style designer
Known for Double-C logo
Chanel suit
Little blackness wearing apparel
The Chanel bag
Chanel No. 5

Label(s)

 Chanel
Parent(s) Eugénie Jeanne Devolle
Albert Chanel
Awards Neiman Marcus Manner Award, 1957

Gabrielle Bonheur "Coco" Chanel ( shə-NEL ; 19 August 1883 – 10 Jan 1971)[2] was a French fashion designer and businesswoman. The founder and namesake of the Chanel brand, she was credited in the post-World War I era with popularizing a sporty, casual chichi every bit the feminine standard of style. This replaced the "corseted silhouette" that was dominant beforehand with a fashion that was simpler, far less time consuming to put on and remove, more comfortable, and less expensive, all without sacrificing elegance. She is the only fashion designer listed on Time magazine's list of the 100 almost influential people of the 20th century.[3] A prolific style creator, Chanel extended her influence beyond couture wearable, realizing her aesthetic design in jewellery, handbags, and fragrance. Her signature scent, Chanel No. 5, has go an iconic product, and Chanel herself designed her famed interlocked-CC monogram, which has been in apply since the 1920s.[four]

During the German occupation of France during Globe War 2, Chanel was criticized for being likewise close to the German occupiers to heave her professional career; 1 of Chanel's liaisons was with a German diplomat, Baron (Freiherr) Hans Günther von Dincklage.[5] [6] Later on the war, Chanel was interrogated about her relationship with von Dincklage, but she was not charged as a collaborator due to intervention by British Prime number Government minister Winston Churchill.[7] After several post-war years in Switzerland, she returned to Paris and revived her way firm. In 2011, Hal Vaughan published a book about Chanel based on newly declassified documents, revealing that she had collaborated directly with the Nazi intelligence service, the Sicherheitsdienst. I programme in late 1943 was for her to carry an SS peace overture to Churchill to finish the war.[8]

Chanel "interlocking C" logo

Early life [edit]

Gabrielle Bonheur Chanel was born in 1883 to Eugénie Jeanne Devolle Chanel, known as Jeanne, a laundrywoman, in the clemency infirmary run past the Sisters of Providence (a poorhouse) in Saumur, Maine-et-Loire.[ix] : 14 [10] She was Jeanne's 2nd child with Albert Chanel; the offset, Julia, had been born less than a year earlier.[x] Albert Chanel was an itinerant street vendor who peddled piece of work clothes and undergarments,[11] : 27 living a nomadic life, traveling to and from market towns. The family resided in rundown lodgings. In 1884, he married Jeanne Devolle,[ix] : 16 persuaded to practise and so by her family who had "united, effectively, to pay Albert."[nine] : 16

At birth, Chanel's proper noun was entered into the official registry as "Chasnel". Jeanne was as well unwell to nourish the registration, and Albert was registered equally "travelling".[9] : 16 With both parents absent-minded, the infant's terminal name was misspelled, probably due to a clerical fault.

She went to her grave as Gabrielle Chasnel because to correct legally the misspelled name on her nascence certificate would reveal that she was built-in in a poorhouse hospice.[12] The couple had six[xiii] children—Julia, Gabrielle, Alphonse (the first boy, born 1885), Antoinette (built-in 1887), Lucien, and Augustin (who died at six months)[13]—and lived crowded into a one-room lodging in the town of Brive-la-Gaillarde.[10]

When Gabrielle was 11,[4] [xiv] Jeanne died at the age of 32.[9] : 18 [x] The children did non attend school.[13] Her father sent his two sons to work as farm laborers and sent his iii daughters to the convent of Aubazine, which ran an orphanage. Its religious social club, the Congregation of the Sacred Middle of Mary, was "founded to care for the poor and rejected, including running homes for abandoned and orphaned girls".[9] : 27 It was a stark, frugal life, demanding strict discipline. Placement in the orphanage may accept contributed to Chanel's future career, as it was where she learned to sew. At age eighteen, Chanel, as well erstwhile to remain at Aubazine, went to live in a boarding business firm for Catholic girls in the town of Moulins.[8] : 5

Later in life, Chanel would retell the story of her childhood somewhat differently; she would often include more glamorous accounts, which were generally untrue.[10] She said that when her mother died, her father sailed for America to seek his fortune, and she was sent to live with two aunts. She as well claimed to take been born a decade later than 1883 and that her mother had died when she was much younger than eleven.[fifteen] [sixteen]

Personal life and early on career [edit]

Aspirations for a phase career [edit]

Having learned to sew during her six years at Aubazine, Chanel found employment as a seamstress.[17] When non sewing, she sang in a cabaret frequented past cavalry officers. Chanel fabricated her stage debut singing at a cafe-concert (a popular entertainment venue of the era) in a Moulins pavilion, La Rotonde. She was a poseuse, a performer who entertained the oversupply between star turns. The coin earned was what they managed to accrue when the plate was passed. It was at this fourth dimension that Gabrielle acquired the name "Coco" when she spent her nights singing in the cabaret, often the vocal, "Who Has Seen Coco?" She frequently liked to say the nickname was given to her by her father.[18] Others believe "Coco" came from Ko Ko Ri Ko, and Qui qu'a vu Coco, or it was an innuendo to the French word for kept woman, cocotte.[19] Every bit an entertainer, Chanel radiated a juvenile attraction that tantalized the military habitués of the cabaret.[eight]

In 1906, Chanel worked in the spa resort town of Vichy. Vichy boasted a profusion of concert halls, theatres, and cafés where she hoped to achieve success as a performer. Chanel's youth and physical charms impressed those for whom she auditioned, but her singing vocalization was marginal and she failed to discover stage piece of work.[11] : 49 Obliged to notice employment, she took work at the Grande Grille, where as a donneuse d'eau she was one whose job was to dispense glasses of the purportedly curative mineral water for which Vichy was renowned.[11] : 45 When the Vichy season ended, Chanel returned to Moulins, and her former haunt La Rotonde. She realised and then that a serious stage career was not in her hereafter.[xi] : 52

Balsan and Capel [edit]

Caricature of Chanel and Arthur "Boy" Capel by Sem, 1913

At Moulins, Chanel met a young French ex-cavalry officer and textile heir, Étienne Balsan. At the age of twenty-three, Chanel became Balsan's mistress, supplanting the courtesan Émilienne d'Alençon as his new favourite.[11] : ten For the next iii years, she lived with him in his château Royallieu virtually Compiègne, an area known for its wooded equestrian paths and the hunting life.[8] : 5–vi Information technology was a lifestyle of self-indulgence. Balsan'south wealth allowed the cultivation of a social ready that reveled in partying and the gratification of human appetites, with all the implied accompanying decadence. Balsan showered Chanel with the baubles of "the rich life"—diamonds, dresses, and pearls. Biographer Justine Picardie, in her 2010 study Coco Chanel: The Legend and the Life, suggests that the fashion designer's nephew, André Palasse, supposedly the only kid of her sister Julia-Berthe who had committed suicide, was Chanel'southward child by Balsan.[xx]

In 1908, Chanel began an affair with one of Balsan's friends, Helm Arthur Edward 'Male child' Capel.[21] In later years, Chanel reminisced of this time in her life: "two gentlemen were outbidding for my hot footling torso."[22] : 19 Capel, a wealthy member of the English upper form, installed Chanel in an apartment in Paris.[eight] : vii and financed her start shops. Information technology is said that Capel'due south sartorial way influenced the conception of the Chanel look. The bottle blueprint for Chanel No. 5 had 2 probable origins, both owing to her clan with Capel. It is believed Chanel adjusted the rectangular, beveled lines of the Charvet toiletry bottles he carried in his leather traveling case[23] or she adapted the design of the whiskey decanter Capel used. She so much admired it that she wished to reproduce it in "exquisite, expensive, fragile drinking glass".[24] : 103 The couple spent fourth dimension together at fashionable resorts such as Deauville, simply despite Chanel'due south hopes that they would settle together, Capel was never true-blue to her.[21] Their matter lasted nine years. Even later on Capel married an English aristocrat, Lady Diana Wyndham in 1918, he did not completely break off with Chanel. He died in a car blow on 22 December 1919.[25] [26] [27] A roadside memorial at the site of Capel'southward accident is said to have been commissioned by Chanel.[28] Twenty-five years after the event, Chanel, then residing in Switzerland, confided to her friend, Paul Morand, "His decease was a terrible blow to me. In losing Capel, I lost everything. What followed was non a life of happiness, I accept to say."[8] : 9

Chanel had begun designing hats while living with Balsan, initially as a diversion that evolved into a commercial enterprise. She became a licensed milliner in 1910 and opened a bazaar at 21 rue Cambon, Paris, named Chanel Modes.[29] Every bit this location already housed an established clothing business, Chanel sold merely her millinery creations at this address. Chanel'due south millinery career bloomed once theatre actress Gabrielle Dorziat wore her hats in Fernand Nozière'south play Bel Ami in 1912. Subsequently, Dorziat modelled Chanel's hats again in photographs published in Les Modes.[29]

Deauville and Biarritz [edit]

In 1913, Chanel opened a bazaar in Deauville, financed by Arthur Capel, where she introduced deluxe casual clothing suitable for leisure and sport. The fashions were constructed from humble fabrics such as bailiwick of jersey and tricot, at the fourth dimension primarily used for men's underwear.[29] The location was a prime number 1, in the eye of town on a stylish street. Hither Chanel sold hats, jackets, sweaters, and the marinière, the crewman blouse. Chanel had the dedicated support of two family unit members, her sis Antoinette, and her paternal aunt Adrienne, who was of a similar historic period.[11] : 42 Adrienne and Antoinette were recruited to model Chanel's designs; on a daily basis the two women paraded through the town and on its boardwalks, advertising the Chanel creations.[xi] : 107–08

Chanel, determined to re-create the success she enjoyed in Deauville, opened an establishment in Biarritz in 1915. Biarritz, on the Côte Basque, close to wealthy Spanish clients, was a playground for the moneyed set and those exiled from their native countries past the war.[30] The Biarritz shop was installed not as a storefront, but in a villa opposite the casino. Subsequently one year of operation, the business proved to exist so lucrative that in 1916 Chanel was able to reimburse Capel's original investment.[xi] : 124–25 In Biarritz Chanel met an expatriate blueblood, the Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russian federation. They had a romantic interlude, and maintained a close association for many years later on.[11] : 166 By 1919, Chanel was registered as a couturière and established her maison de couture at 31 rue Cambon, Paris.[29]

Established couturière [edit]

Chanel (right) in her lid store, 1919. Caricature by Sem.

In 1918, Chanel purchased the edifice at 31 rue Cambon, in one of the nigh stylish districts of Paris. In 1921, she opened an early on incarnation of a style bazaar, featuring wear, hats, and accessories, later on expanded to offer jewelry and fragrances. By 1927, Chanel owned five properties on the rue Cambon, buildings numbered 23 to 31.[31] [ failed verification ]

In the spring of 1920, Chanel was introduced to the Russian composer Igor Stravinsky by Sergei Diaghilev, impresario of the Ballets Russes.[32] During the summer, Chanel discovered that the Stravinsky family unit sought a place to live, having left the Soviet Wedlock after the state of war. She invited them to her new home, Bel Respiro, in the Paris suburb of Garches, until they could find a suitable residence.[32] : 318 They arrived at Bel Respiro during the second week of September[32] : 318 and remained until May, 1921.[32] : 329 Chanel likewise guaranteed the new (1920) Ballets Russes product of Stravinsky's Le Sacre du Printemps ('The Rite of Spring') against financial loss with an bearding gift to Diaghilev, said to exist 300,000 francs.[32] : 319 In addition to turning out her couture collections, Chanel threw herself into designing dance costumes for the Ballets Russes. In the years 1923–1937, she collaborated on productions choreographed past Diaghilev and dancer Vaslav Nijinsky, notably Le Train bleu, a dance-opera; Orphée and Oedipe Roi.[eight] : 31–32

In 1922, at the Longchamps races, Théophile Bader, founder of the Paris Galeries Lafayette, introduced Chanel to man of affairs Pierre Wertheimer. Bader was interested in selling Chanel No. 5 in his department store.[33] In 1924, Chanel fabricated an understanding with the Wertheimer brothers, Pierre and Paul, directors since 1917 of the eminent perfume and cosmetics business firm Bourjois. They created a corporate entity, Parfums Chanel, and the Wertheimers agreed to provide full financing for the product, marketing, and distribution of Chanel No. 5. The Wertheimers would receive seventy per centum of the profits, and Théophile Bader twenty percent. For x percent of the stock, Chanel licensed her name to Parfums Chanel and withdrew from involvement in business operations.[24] : 95 Later, unhappy with the arrangement, Chanel worked for more than twenty years to gain full control of Parfums Chanel.[33] [24] She said that Pierre Wertheimer was "the bandit who screwed me".[24] : 153

One of Chanel'southward longest enduring associations was with Misia Sert, a member of the bohemian elite in Paris and wife of Spanish painter José-Maria Sert. Information technology is said that theirs was an immediate bail of kindred souls, and Misia was attracted to Chanel by "her genius, lethal wit, sarcasm and maniacal destructiveness, which intrigued and appalled everyone".[8] : 13 Both women were convent-schooled, and maintained a friendship of shared interests and confidences. They also shared drug use. Past 1935, Chanel had get a habitual drug user, injecting herself with morphine on a daily basis: a habit she maintained to the end of her life.[8] : lxxx–81 According to Chandler Burr's The Emperor of Scent, Luca Turin related an counterfeit story in apportionment that Chanel was "called Coco considering she threw the most fabulous cocaine parties in Paris".[34]

The author Colette, who moved in the same social circles as Chanel, provided a whimsical clarification of Chanel at work in her atelier, which appeared in Prisons et Paradis (1932):

If every human face bears a resemblance to some animal, then Mademoiselle Chanel is a small black bull. That tuft of curly black hair, the attribute of bull-calves, falls over her brow all the way to the eyelids and dances with every maneuver of her head.[11] : 248

Associations with British aristocrats [edit]

In 1923, Vera Bate Lombardi, (born Sarah Gertrude Arkwright), reputedly the illegitimate daughter of the Marquess of Cambridge, offered Chanel entry into the highest levels of British aristocracy. It was an aristocracy grouping of associations revolving around such figures equally politician Winston Churchill, aristocrats such equally the Knuckles of Westminster and royals such as Edward, Prince of Wales. In Monte Carlo in 1923, at age forty, Chanel was introduced past Lombardi to the vastly wealthy Duke of Westminster, Hugh Richard Arthur Grosvenor, known to his intimates as "Bendor". The duke lavished Chanel with extravagant jewels, costly fine art and a habitation in London'south prestigious Mayfair district. His affair with Chanel lasted ten years.[8] : 36–37

The duke, an outspoken antisemite, intensified Chanel's inherent antipathy toward Jews. He shared with her an expressed homophobia. In 1946, Chanel was quoted by her friend and confidant, Paul Morand,

Homosexuals? ... I have seen young women ruined past these awful queers: drugs, divorce, scandal. They will utilise whatsoever means to destroy a competitor and to wreak vengeance on a woman. The queers want to be women—just they are lousy women. They are charming![8] : 41

Coinciding with her introduction to the knuckles was her introduction, once more through Lombardi, to Lombardi's cousin, the Prince of Wales, Edward VIII. The prince allegedly was smitten with Chanel and pursued her in spite of her involvement with the Duke of Westminster. Gossip had information technology that he visited Chanel in her apartment and requested that she call him "David", a privilege reserved only for his closest friends and family. Years afterward, Diana Vreeland, editor of Vogue, would insist that "the passionate, focused and fiercely-independent Chanel, a virtual bout de forcefulness," and the Prince "had a dandy romantic moment together".[8] : 38

In 1927, the Knuckles of Westminster gave Chanel a parcel of state he had purchased in Roquebrune-Cap-Martin on the French Riviera. Chanel built a villa here, which she called La Pausa [ citation needed ] ('restful interruption'), hiring the builder Robert Streitz. Streitz'southward concept for the staircase and patio contained design elements inspired by Aubazine, the orphanage where Chanel spent her youth.[8] : 48–49 [35] When asked why she did not marry the Duke of Westminster, she is supposed to have said: "There accept been several Duchesses of Westminster. There is but one Chanel."[36]

During Chanel's affair with the Knuckles of Westminster in the 1930s, her style began to reflect her personal emotions. Her inability to reinvent the little blackness clothes was a sign of such reality. She began to design a "less is more" aesthetic.[37]

Designing for picture show [edit]

Yard Duke Dmitri Pavlovich Romanov in exile in the 1920s

In 1931, while in Monte Carlo Chanel became acquainted with Samuel Goldwyn. She was introduced through a common friend, the M Duke Dmitri Pavlovich, cousin to the last arbiter of Russian federation, Nicolas Ii. Goldwyn offered Chanel a tantalizing proposition. For the sum of a one thousand thousand dollars (approximately US$75 1000000 today), he would bring her to Hollywood twice a twelvemonth to design costumes for his stars. Chanel accepted the offer. Accompanying her on her first trip to Hollywood was her friend, Misia Sert.

En road to California from New York, traveling in a white train carriage luxuriously outfitted for her use, Chanel was interviewed by Colliers magazine in 1932. She said that she had agreed to become to Hollywood to "see what the pictures take to offering me and what I have to offering the pictures."[24] : 127 Chanel designed the article of clothing worn on screen by Gloria Swanson, in This night or Never (1931), and for Ina Claire in The Greeks Had a Word for Them (1932). Both Greta Garbo and Marlene Dietrich became private clients.[38]

Her experience with American moviemaking left Chanel with a dislike for Hollywood'southward film business concern and a distaste for the moving picture world'south civilization, which she called "infantile".[8] : 68 Chanel'south verdict was that "Hollywood is the capital of bad gustatory modality ... and it is vulgar."[8] : 62 Ultimately, her blueprint aesthetic did not translate well to film. The New Yorker speculated that Chanel left Hollywood because "they told her her dresses weren't sensational enough. She made a lady wait like a lady. Hollywood wants a lady to look like two ladies."[39] Chanel went on to design the costumes for several French films, including Jean Renoir'due south 1939 film La Règle du jeu, in which she was credited every bit La Maison Chanel. Chanel introduced the left-wing Renoir to Luchino Visconti, aware that the shy Italian hoped to work in moving-picture show. Renoir was favorably impressed by Visconti and brought him in to work on his adjacent pic project.[9] : 306

Significant liaisons: Reverdy and Iribe [edit]

Chanel was the mistress of some of the nigh influential men of her time, but she never married. She had significant relationships with the poet Pierre Reverdy and the illustrator and designer Paul Iribe. After her romance with Reverdy ended in 1926, they maintained a friendship that lasted some forty years.[8] : 23 It is postulated that the legendary maxims attributed to Chanel and published in periodicals were crafted nether the mentorship of Reverdy—a collaborative endeavour.

A review of her correspondence reveals a complete contradiction between the clumsiness of Chanel the letter author and the talent of Chanel as a composer of maxims ... After correcting the handful of aphorisms that Chanel wrote about her métier, Reverdy added to this collection of "Chanelisms" a serial of thoughts of a more general nature, some touching on life and taste, others on allure and beloved.[11] : 328

Her interest with Iribe was a deep 1 until his sudden decease in 1935. Iribe and Chanel shared the same reactionary politics, Chanel financing Iribe's monthly, ultra-nationalist and anti-republican newsletter, Le Témoin, which encouraged a fearfulness of foreigners and preached antisemitism.[viii] : 78–79 [9] : 300 In 1936, one twelvemonth afterwards Le Témoin ceased publication, Chanel veered to the contrary stop of the ideological continuum by financing Pierre Lestringuez'due south radical left-wing magazine Futur.[9] : 313

Rivalry with Schiaparelli [edit]

The Chanel couture was a lucrative business enterprise, employing 4,000 people by 1935.[38] As the 1930s progressed, Chanel's place on the throne of haute couture was threatened. The adolescent wait and the short skirts of the 1920s flapper seemed to disappear overnight. Chanel'south designs for moving-picture show stars in Hollywood were not successful and had non enhanced her reputation every bit expected. More significantly, Chanel's star had been eclipsed by her premier rival, the designer Elsa Schiaparelli. Schiaparelli's innovative designs, replete with playful references to surrealism, were garnering critical acclaim and generating enthusiasm in the fashion world. Feeling she was losing her advanced edge, Chanel collaborated with Jean Cocteau on his theatre piece Oedipe Rex. The costumes she designed were mocked and critically lambasted: "Wrapped in bandages the actors looked like ambulant mummies or victims of some terrible accident."[8] : 96 She was too involved in the costuming of Baccanale, a Ballets Russes de Monte Carlo production. The designs were fabricated by Salvador Dalí. However, due to the declaration of state of war past Corking United kingdom on iii September 1939, the ballet was forced to leave London. They left the costumes in Europe and were re-made, according to Dali'due south initial designs, by Karinska.[40]

Globe War Ii [edit]

In 1939, at the start of World War II, Chanel closed her shops, maintaining her apartment situated above the couture house at 31 Rue de Cambon. She said that it was not a fourth dimension for mode;[30] as a effect of her action, four,000 female employees lost their jobs.[8] : 101 Her biographer Hal Vaughan suggests that Chanel used the outbreak of war as an opportunity to retaliate against those workers who had struck for higher wages and shorter work hours in the French general labor strike of 1936. In closing her couture business firm, Chanel fabricated a definitive statement of her political views. Her dislike of Jews, reportedly sharpened past her association with society elites, had solidified her beliefs. She shared with many of her circle a conviction that Jews were a threat to Europe considering of the Bolshevik government in the Soviet Union.[8] : 101

During the German occupation, Chanel resided at the Hotel Ritz. It was noteworthy equally the preferred identify of residence for upper-echelon German military staff. During this fourth dimension, she had a romantic liaison with Baron Hans Günther von Dincklage, a German aristocrat and member of Dincklage noble family. He served as diplomat in Paris and was a erstwhile Prussian Army officer and Chaser General who had been an operative in military intelligence since 1920,[8] : 57 who eased her arrangements at the Ritz.[8] : Chapter 11

Battle for control of Parfums Chanel [edit]

Sleeping with the Enemy, Coco Chanel and the Secret State of war written past Hal Vaughan farther solidifies the consistencies of the French intelligence documents released by describing Coco as a "vicious antisemite" who praised Hitler.[37]

Earth War Ii, specifically the Nazi seizure of all Jewish-owned property and business enterprises, provided Chanel with the opportunity to gain the total monetary fortune generated by Parfums Chanel and its most profitable production, Chanel No. 5. The directors of Parfums Chanel, the Wertheimers, were Jewish. Chanel used her position as an "Aryan" to petition German officials to legalize her claim to sole ownership.

On 5 May 1941, she wrote to the government administrator charged with ruling on the disposition of Jewish financial avails. Her grounds for proprietary ownership were based on the claim that Parfums Chanel "is still the holding of Jews" and had been legally "abandoned" by the owners.[24] : 150 [33]

She wrote:

I have an indisputable right of priority ... the profits that I take received from my creations since the foundation of this business ... are disproportionate ... [and] you tin help to repair in part the prejudices I accept suffered in the course of these seventeen years.[24] : 152–53

Chanel was non aware that the Wertheimers, anticipating the forthcoming Nazi mandates against Jews had, in May, 1940, legally turned control of Parfums Chanel over to Félix Amiot, a Christian French businessman and industrialist. At war's end, Amiot returned "Parfums Chanel" to the hands of the Wertheimers.[24] : 150 [33]

During the period directly following the cease of Globe State of war 2, the business world watched with involvement and some apprehension the ongoing legal wrestle for command of Parfums Chanel. Interested parties in the proceedings were cognizant that Chanel's Nazi affiliations during wartime, if made public knowledge, would seriously threaten the reputation and status of the Chanel make. Forbes magazine summarized the dilemma faced by the Wertheimers: [it is Pierre Wertheimer's worry] how "a legal fight might illuminate Chanel's wartime activities and wreck her image—and his business."[24] : 175

Chanel hired René de Chambrun, Vichy French republic Prime Minister Pierre Laval's son-in-law, as her lawyer to sue Wertheimer.[41] Ultimately, the Wertheimers and Chanel came to a mutual accommodation, renegotiating the original 1924 contract. On 17 May 1947, Chanel received wartime profits from the sale of Chanel No. 5, an amount equivalent to some 9 million dollars in twenty-commencement century valuation. Her hereafter share would be ii percent of all Chanel No. five sales worldwide. The fiscal do good to her would be enormous. Her earnings were projected at $25 million a year, making her one of the richest women in the world at the time. In addition, Pierre Wertheimer agreed to an unusual stipulation proposed by Chanel herself: Wertheimer agreed to pay all of Chanel's living expenses—from the trivial to the large—for the residue of her life.[24] : 175–77 [42]

Activity as Nazi agent [edit]

Declassified archival documents unearthed by Vaughan reveal that the French Préfecture de Police had a document on Chanel in which she was described as "Couturier and perfumer. Pseudonym: Westminster. Amanuensis reference: F 7124. Signalled every bit suspect in the file" (Pseudonyme: Westminster. Indicatif d'agent: F 7124. Signalée comme suspecte au fichier).[43] [8] : 140 For Vaughan, this was a piece of revelatory information linking Chanel to High german intelligence operations. Anti-Nazi activist Serge Klarsfeld alleged, "But considering Chanel had a spy number doesn't necessarily hateful she was personally involved. Some informers had numbers without being aware of it." ("Ce n'est pas parce que Coco Chanel avait un numéro d'espion qu'elle était nécessairement impliquée personnellement. Certains indicateurs avaient des numéros sans le savoir").[44]

Vaughan establishes that Chanel committed herself to the German language cause as early on as 1941 and worked for Full general Walter Schellenberg, master of the German intelligence agency Sicherheitsdienst (Security Service; SD) and the military machine intelligence spy network Abwehr (Counterintelligence) at the Reich Security Main Part (Reichssicherheitshauptamt; RSHA) in Berlin.[8] : xix At the end of the war, Schellenberg was tried past the Nuremberg Military Tribunal, and sentenced to vi years' imprisonment for war crimes. He was released in 1951 owing to incurable liver disease and took refuge in Italia. Chanel paid for Schellenberg's medical care and living expenses, financially supported his wife and family and paid for Schellenberg's funeral upon his death in 1952.[8] : 205–07

Suspicions of Coco Chanel'due south involvement start began when High german tanks entered Paris and began the Nazi occupation. Chanel immediately sought refuge in the deluxe Hotel Ritz, which was likewise used as the headquarters of the German military. It was at the Hotel Ritz where she fell in love with Businesswoman Hans Gunther von Dincklage, working in the German embassy close to the Gestapo. When the Nazi occupation of France began, Chanel decided to close her store, claiming a patriotic motivation behind such decision. However, when she moved into the same Hotel Ritz that was housing the High german military machine, her motivations became articulate to many. While many women in France were punished for "horizontal collaboration" with German officers, Chanel faced no such activeness. At the time of the French liberation in 1944, Chanel left a notation in her shop window explaining Chanel No. 5 to be gratis to all GIs. During this fourth dimension, she fled to Switzerland to avoid criminal charges for her collaborations as a Nazi spy.[37] Later the liberation, she was known to accept been interviewed in Paris by Malcolm Muggeridge, who at the fourth dimension was an officer in British military machine intelligence, about her relationship with the Nazis during the occupation of French republic.[45]

Operation Modellhut [edit]

In late 2014, French intelligence agencies declassified and released documents confirming Coco Chanel's office with Frg in World War II. Working as a spy, Chanel was straight involved in a program for the Third Reich to take control of Madrid. Such documents place Chanel as an agent in the German military intelligence, the Abwehr. Chanel visited Madrid in 1943 to convince the British ambassador to Kingdom of spain, Sir Samuel Hoare, a friend of Winston Churchill, about a possible German give up in one case the war was leaning towards an Allied victory. One of the virtually prominent missions she was involved in was Operation Modellhut ("Functioning Model Hat"). Her duty was to deed as a messenger from Hitler'south Foreign Intelligence to Churchill, to prove that some of the Third Reich attempted peace with the Allies.[37]

In 1943, Chanel travelled to the RSHA in Berlin—the "lion's den"—with her liaison and "old friend", the German Embassy in Paris press attaché Businesswoman Hans Günther von Dincklage, a former Prussian Ground forces officeholder and chaser general, who was too known as "Sparrow" among his friends and colleagues.[5] [half-dozen] Dincklage was also a collaborator for the German language SD; his superiors beingness Walter Schellenberg and Alexander Waag in Berlin.[5] [vi] Chanel and Dincklage were to report to Schellenberg at the RSHA, with a plan that Chanel had proposed to Dincklage: she, Coco Chanel, was to see Churchill and persuade him to negotiate with the Germans.[eight] : xix [5] [6] In tardily 1943 or early 1944, Chanel and her SS superior, Schellenberg, who had a weakness for anarchistic schemes,[5] devised a program to become United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland to consider a separate peace to exist negotiated by the SS. When interrogated by British intelligence at state of war's end, Schellenberg maintained that Chanel was "a person who knew Churchill sufficiently to undertake political negotiations with him".[8] : 169 For this mission, lawmaking-named Operation Modellhut, they as well recruited Vera Bate Lombardi. Count Joseph von Ledebur-Wicheln, a Nazi agent who defected to the British Cloak-and-dagger Service in 1944, recalled a meeting he had with Dincklage in early 1943, in which the baron had suggested including Lombardi as a courier. Dincklage purportedly said,

The Abwehr had first to bring to French republic a immature Italian woman [Lombardi] Coco Chanel was fastened to because of her lesbian vices...[8] : 163–64

Unaware of the machinations of Schellenberg and Chanel, Lombardi was led to believe that the forthcoming journey to Spain would be a business organisation trip exploring the potential for establishing Chanel couture in Madrid. Lombardi acted every bit intermediary, delivering a letter written by Chanel to Churchill, to be forwarded to him via the British Embassy in Madrid.[8] : 169–71 Schellenberg's SS liaison officeholder, Captain Walter Kutschmann, acted as bagman, "told to deliver a large sum of money to Chanel in Madrid."[viii] : 174 Ultimately, the mission was a failure for the Germans: British intelligence files reveal that the plan collapsed afterwards Lombardi, on arrival in Madrid, proceeded to denounce Chanel and others to the British Diplomatic mission as Nazi spies.[eight] : 174–75

Protection from prosecution [edit]

In September, 1944, Chanel was interrogated by the Free French Purge Committee, the épuration. The committee had no documented evidence of her collaborative activities and was obliged to release her. According to Chanel's thousand-niece, Gabrielle Palasse Labrunie, when Chanel returned home she said, "Churchill had me freed".[viii] : 186–87

The extent of Churchill's intervention for Chanel afterward the war became a subject of gossip and speculation. Some historians claimed that people worried that, if Chanel were forced to bear witness well-nigh her ain activities at trial, she would expose the pro-Nazi sympathies and activities of sure superlative-level British officials, members of the society elite and the majestic family. Vaughan writes that some claim that Churchill instructed Duff Cooper, British ambassador to the French provisional government, to protect Chanel.[8] : 187

Requested to appear in Paris before investigators in 1949, Chanel left her retreat in Switzerland to confront testimony given against her at the war law-breaking trial of Baron Louis de Vaufreland, a French traitor and highly placed German intelligence amanuensis. Chanel denied all the accusations. She offered the presiding judge, Leclercq, a graphic symbol reference: "I could adapt for a declaration to come from Mr. Duff Cooper."[8] : 199

Chanel's friend and biographer Marcel Haedrich said of her wartime interaction with the Nazi regime:

If one took seriously the few disclosures that Mademoiselle Chanel allowed herself to make about those black years of the occupation, one's teeth would exist ready on border.[24] : 175

Churchill and Chanel's friendship marks its origin in the 1920s, with the eruption of Chanel's scandalous kickoff when falling in dearest with the Duke of Westminster. Churchill's intervention at the finish of the war prevented Chanel'south punishment for spy collaborations, and ultimately salvaged her legacy.[37]

Controversy [edit]

When Vaughan's book was published in August, 2011, his disclosure of the contents of recently declassified military intelligence documents generated considerable controversy about Chanel's activities. Maison de Chanel issued a argument, portions of which were published by several media outlets. Chanel corporate "refuted the merits" (of espionage), while acknowledging that company officials had read just media excerpts of the book.[46]

The Chanel Group stated,

What is certain is that she had a human relationship with a German aristocrat during the War. Clearly it wasn't the best period to have a honey story with a High german, fifty-fifty if Baron von Dincklage was English by his mother and she (Chanel) knew him before the State of war.[47]

In an interview given to the Associated Printing, writer Vaughan discussed the unexpected plough of his research,

I was looking for something else and I come up across this document saying 'Chanel is a Nazi agent'...Then I really started hunting through all of the archives, in the United States, in London, in Berlin and in Rome and I come up across not ane, but 20, thirty, 40 admittedly solid archival materials on Chanel and her lover, Hans Günther von Dincklage, who was a professional person Abwehr spy.[46]

Vaughan also addressed the discomfort many felt with the revelations provided in his volume:

A lot of people in this globe don't desire the iconic figure of Gabrielle Coco Chanel, i of France's great cultural idols, destroyed. This is definitely something that a lot of people would take preferred to put bated, to forget, to just go on selling Chanel scarves and jewellery.[46]

Mail service-war life and career [edit]

In 1945, Chanel moved to Switzerland, where she lived for several years, role of the time with Dincklage. In 1953 she sold her villa La Pausa on the French Riviera to the publisher and translator Emery Reves. Five rooms from La Pausa have been replicated at the Dallas Museum of Art, to house the Reves' fine art collection as well as pieces of furniture belonging to Chanel.[35]

Unlike the pre-war era, when women reigned as the premier couturiers, Christian Dior accomplished success in 1947 with his "New Look", and a cadre of male designers achieved recognition: Dior, Cristóbal Balenciaga, Robert Piguet, and Jacques Fath. Chanel was convinced that women would ultimately rebel against the aesthetic favored past the male couturiers, what she called "illogical" design: the "waist cinchers, padded bras, heavy skirts, and stiffened jackets".[11]

At more than 70 years old, after having her couture house closed for 15 years, she felt the time was correct for her to re-enter the fashion globe.[11] : 320 The revival of her couture house in 1954 was fully financed by Chanel's opponent in the perfume battle, Pierre Wertheimer.[24] : 176–77 When Chanel came out with her improvement collection in 1954, the French printing were cautious due to her collaboration during the state of war and the controversy of the collection. Even so, the American and British press saw it as a "breakthrough", bringing together fashion and youth in a new way.[48] Bettina Ballard, the influential editor of the US Vogue, remained loyal to Chanel, even so, and featured the model Marie-Hélène Arnaud—the "face of Chanel" in the 1950s—in the March 1954 event,[twenty] : 270 photographed by Henry Clarke, wearing iii outfits: a crimson dress with a Five-cervix paired with ropes of pearls; a tiered seersucker evening gown; and a navy jersey mid-calf suit.[49] Arnaud wore this outfit, "with its slightly padded, square shouldered cardigan jacket, two patch pockets and sleeves that unbuttoned back to reveal crisp white cuffs", above "a white muslin blouse with a perky collar and bow [that] stayed perfectly in place with pocket-size tabs that buttoned onto the waistline of an easy A-line skirt."[22] : 151 Ballard had bought the suit herself, which gave "an overwhelming impression of insouciant, youthful elegance",[49] and orders for the habiliment that Arnaud had modelled soon poured in from the US.[20] : 273

Final years [edit]

According to Edmonde Charles-Roux,[11] : 222 Chanel had get tyrannical and extremely lonely late in life. In her last years she was sometimes accompanied by Jacques Chazot and her confidante Lilou Marquand. A true-blue friend was also the Brazilian Aimée de Heeren, who lived in Paris four months a year at the nearby Hôtel Meurice. The sometime rivals shared happy memories of times with the Duke of Westminster. They oftentimes strolled together through central Paris.[fifty]

Death [edit]

Equally 1971 began, Chanel was 87 years quondam, tired, and bilious. She carried out her usual routine of preparing the spring catalogue. She had gone for a long drive on the afternoon of Saturday, nine January. Soon after, feeling ill, she went to bed early.[24] : 196 She announced her final words to her maid which were: "Y'all come across, this is how you die."[51]

She died on Sunday, ten January 1971, at the Hotel Ritz, where she had resided for more 30 years.[52]

Her funeral was held at the Église de la Madeleine; her fashion models occupied the first seats during the ceremony and her bury was covered with white flowers—camellias, gardenias, orchids, azaleas and a few ruby roses. Salvador Dalí, Serge Lifar, Jacques Chazot, Yves Saint Laurent and Marie-Hélène de Rothschild attended her funeral in the Church building of the Madeleine. Her grave is in the Bois-de-Vaux Cemetery, Lausanne, Switzerland.[53] [54]

Almost of her manor was inherited by her nephew André Palasse, who lived in Switzerland, and his two daughters, who lived in Paris.[41]

Although Chanel was viewed as a prominent effigy of luxury style during her life, Chanel'southward influence has been examined further after her death in 1971. When Chanel died, the starting time lady of France, Mme Pompidou, organized a hero'due south tribute. Before long, damaging documents from French intelligence agencies were released that outlined Chanel'south wartime involvements, quickly ending her monumental funeral plans.[37]

Legacy as designer [edit]

Chanel wearing a sailor'south jersey and trousers, 1928

As early as 1915, Harper's Bazaar raved over Chanel'due south designs: "The adult female who hasn't at least ane Chanel is hopelessly out of fashion ... This flavour the proper name Chanel is on the lips of every heir-apparent."[8] : xiv Chanel'south ascendancy was the official deathblow to the corseted female silhouette. The frills, fuss, and constraints endured past earlier generations of women were at present passé; under her influence—gone were the "aigrettes, long hair, hobble skirts".[xi] : 11 Her design aesthetic redefined the fashionable woman in the mail service Globe War I era. The Chanel trademark wait was of youthful ease, liberated physicality, and unencumbered sportive confidence.

The horse culture and penchant for hunting so passionately pursued by the elites, especially the British, fired Chanel's imagination. Her own enthusiastic indulgence in the sporting life led to clothing designs informed by those activities. From her excursions on h2o with the yachting globe, she appropriated the vesture associated with nautical pursuits: the horizontal striped shirt, bell-bottom pants, crewneck sweaters, and espadrille shoes—all traditionally worn by sailors and fishermen.[eight] : 47, 79

Jersey fabric [edit]

Three jersey outfits by Chanel, March 1917

Chanel'south initial triumph was her innovative utilize of bailiwick of jersey, a machine knit material manufactured for her by the firm Rodier.[11] : 128, 133 Traditionally relegated to the manufacture of undergarments and sportswear (tennis, golf, and beach attire), jersey was considered too "ordinary" to be used in couture, and was disliked by designers considering the knit structure made it difficult to handle compared to woven fabrics. According to the Metropolitan Museum of Fine art, "With her fiscal situation precarious in the early on years of her design career, Chanel purchased bailiwick of jersey primarily for its depression cost. The qualities of the fabric, however, ensured that the designer would keep to use it long after her business concern became assisting."[55] Chanel's early wool jersey traveling suit consisted of a cardigan jacket and pleated brim, paired with a low-belted pullover top. This ensemble, worn with depression-heeled shoes, became the casual look in expensive women'southward wearable.[viii] : 13, 47

Chanel'south introduction of jersey to high-manner worked well for two reasons: Commencement, the war had caused a shortage of more traditional couture materials, and 2d, women began desiring simpler and more applied wearing apparel. Her fluid jersey suits and dresses were created with these notions in mind and allowed for free and easy movement. This was greatly appreciated at the time considering women were working for the war endeavour every bit nurses, civil servants, and in factories. Their jobs involved physical activeness and they had to ride trains, buses, and bicycles to get to work.[56] : 57 For such circumstances, they desired outfits that did not requite way easily and could exist put on without the help of servants.[22] : 28

Slavic influence [edit]

Designers such as Paul Poiret and Fortuny introduced indigenous references into haute couture in the 1900s and early 1910s.[57] Chanel connected this trend with Slav-inspired designs in the early 1920s. The beading and embroidery on her garments at this time was exclusively executed by Kitmir, an embroidery firm founded by an exiled Russian aristocrat, the Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna, who was the sis of Chanel's erstwhile lover, Grand Knuckles Dmitri Pavlovich.[58] [59] Kitmir's fusion of oriental stitching with stylised folk motifs was highlighted in Chanel'due south early collections.[59] One 1922 evening apparel came with a matching embroidered 'babushka' headscarf.[59] In addition to the headscarf, Chanel clothing from this catamenia featured square-neck, long belted blouses alluding to Russian muzhiks (peasant) attire known as the roubachka.[11] : 172 Evening designs were often embroidered with sparkling crystal and blackness jet embroidery.[eight] : 25–26

Chanel adjust and silk blouse with two-tone pumps, 1965

Chanel accommodate [edit]

First introduced in 1923,[60] the Chanel tweed suit was designed for comfort and practicality. It consisted of a jacket and brim in supple and calorie-free wool or mohair tweed, and a blouse and jacket lining in jersey or silk. Chanel did non stiffen the material or apply shoulder pads, every bit was common in contemporary fashion. She cut the jackets on the direct grain, without adding bosom darts. This allowed for quick and easy movement. She designed the neckline to leave the neck comfortably free and added functional pockets. For a higher level of comfort, the skirt had a grosgrain stay effectually the waist, instead of a belt. More importantly, meticulous attention was placed on particular during fittings. Measurements were taken of a customer in a continuing position with arms folded at shoulder height. Chanel conducted tests with models, having them walk effectually, step upward to a platform as if climbing stairs of an imaginary bus, and bend as if getting into a low-slung sports car. Chanel wanted to make certain women could practise all of these things while wearing her suit, without accidentally exposing parts of their body they wanted covered. Each client would take repeated adjustments until their accommodate was comfortable enough for them to perform daily activities with comfort and ease.[61]

Camellia [edit]

The camellia had an established association used in Alexandre Dumas' literary piece of work, La Matriarch aux Camélias (The Lady of the Camellias). Its heroine and her story had resonated for Chanel since her youth. The blossom was associated with the courtesan, who would wearable a camellia to advertise her availability.[62] The camellia came to be identified with The Firm of Chanel; the designer first used information technology in 1933 as a decorative chemical element on a white-trimmed black accommodate.[38]

Chanel'south Timeless Fiddling Black Dress Modeled, 2011

Lilliputian black dress [edit]

Later on the jersey conform, the concept of the piffling black wearing apparel is ofttimes cited as a Chanel contribution to the way lexicon, a manner nonetheless worn to this 24-hour interval. In 1912–1913, the actress Suzanne Orlandi was 1 of the first women to wear a Chanel lilliputian black dress, in velvet with a white collar.[63] In 1920, Chanel herself vowed that, while observing an audience at the opera, she would wearing apparel all women in black.[20] : 92–93

In 1926, the American edition of Vogue published an image of a Chanel little black dress with long sleeves, dubbing it the garçonne ('little boy' await).[38] Vogue predicted that such a elementary yet chichi pattern would become a virtual compatible for women of taste, famously comparison its basic lines to the ubiquitous and no less widely accessible Ford automobile.[64] [65] The spare expect generated widespread criticism from male journalists, who complained: "no more bust, no more than tum, no more rump ... Feminine way of this moment in the 20th century will be baptized lop off everything."[eleven] : 210 The popularity of the footling black clothes can be attributed in part to the timing of its introduction. The 1930s was the Bully Depression era, when women needed affordable fashion. Chanel boasted that she had enabled the non-wealthy to "walk around like millionaires".[66] [8] : 47 Chanel started making petty black dresses in wool or chenille for the day and in satin, crêpe or velvet for the evening.[22] : 83

Chanel proclaimed "I imposed black; it's still going strong today, for blackness wipes out everything else around."[20]

Jewellery [edit]

Chanel introduced a line of jewellery that was a conceptual innovation, as her designs and materials incorporated both costume jewellery and fine gem stones. This was revolutionary in an era when jewellery was strictly categorized into either fine or costume jewellery. Her inspirations were global, often inspired past pattern traditions of the Orient and Egypt. Wealthy clients who did not wish to brandish their costly jewellery in public could wear Chanel creations to print others.[56] : 153

In 1933, designer Paul Iribe collaborated with Chanel in the creation of improvident jewellery pieces commissioned by the International Guild of Diamond Merchants. The collection, executed exclusively in diamonds and platinum, was exhibited for public viewing and drew a large audience; some three,000 attendees were recorded in a i-calendar month period.[38]

As an antitoxin for vrais bijoux en toc, the obsession with costly, fine jewels,[38] Chanel turned costume jewellery into a coveted accessory—peculiarly when worn in grand displays, as she did. Originally inspired past the opulent jewels and pearls given to her by aristocratic lovers, Chanel raided her own jewel vault and partnered with Duke Fulco di Verdura to launch a House of Chanel jewellery line. A white enameled cuff featuring a jeweled Maltese cross was Chanel'southward personal favourite; it has go an icon of the Verdura–Chanel collaboration.[38] The fashionable and wealthy loved the creations and made the line wildly successful. Chanel said, "Information technology's disgusting to walk around with millions around the neck because one happens to be rich. I only like fake jewellery ... considering it'due south provocative."[8] : 74

The Chanel handbag [edit]

In 1929, Chanel introduced a bag inspired by soldier's bags. Its thin shoulder strap allowed the user to proceed her hands free. Following her comeback, Chanel updated the design in Feb, 1955, creating what would get the "ii.55" (named for the appointment of its cosmos).[67] Whilst details of the classic bag accept been reworked, such as the 1980s update by Karl Lagerfeld when the clasp and lock were redesigned to incorporate the Chanel logo and leather was interlaced through the shoulder concatenation, the bag has retained its original basic course.[68] In 2005, the Chanel firm released an verbal replica of the original 1955 purse to commemorate the 50th anniversary of its cosmos.[68]

The purse's design was informed by Chanel's convent days and her dearest of the sporting world. The chain used for the strap echoed the chatelaines worn by the caretakers of the orphanage where Chanel grew up, whilst the burgundy lining referenced the convent uniforms.[68] The quilted outside was influenced past the jackets worn by jockeys,[68] whilst at the same time enhancing the handbag's shape and volume.[67]

Suntans [edit]

In an outdoor environment of turf and sea, Chanel took in the sun, making suntans not only acceptable, but a symbol denoting a life of privilege and leisure. Historically, identifiable exposure to the sun had been the mark of laborers doomed to a life of unremitting, unsheltered toil. "A milky skin seemed a sure sign of aristocracy." By the mid-1920s, women could exist seen lounging on the beach without a hat to shield them from the lord's day's rays. The Chanel influence made sun bathing stylish.[xi] : 138–39

Depictions in popular culture [edit]

Theatre [edit]

  • The Broadway musical Coco, with music by André Previn, book and lyrics by Alan Jay Lerner, opened 18 Dec 1969 and closed 3 Oct 1970. Information technology is prepare in 1953–1954 at the time that Chanel was reestablishing her couture house. Chanel was played past Katharine Hepburn for the first eight months, and by Danielle Darrieux for the balance of its run.

Film [edit]

  • The first picture show about Chanel was Chanel Solitaire (1981), directed by George Kaczender and starring Marie-French republic Pisier, Timothy Dalton, and Rutger Hauer.
  • Coco Chanel (2008) was a television movie starring Shirley MacLaine as the 70-year-old Chanel. Directed by Christian Duguay, the movie also starred Barbora Bobuľová as the immature Chanel and Olivier Sitruk equally Male child Capel.
  • Coco avant Chanel (Coco Earlier Chanel) (2009) was a French-language biographical film directed by Anne Fontaine, starring Audrey Tautou equally the young Chanel, with Benoît Poelvoorde as Étienne Balsan and Alessandro Nivola as Boy Capel
  • Coco Chanel & Igor Stravinsky (2009) was a French-language film directed by Jan Kounen. Anna Mouglalis played Chanel, and Mads Mikkelsen played Igor Stravinsky. The motion picture was based on the 2002 novel Coco and Igor by Chris Greenhalgh, which concerns a purported thing between Chanel and Stravinsky. It was chosen to close the Cannes Picture show Festival of 2009.[69]

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Further reading [edit]

  • Charles-Roux, Edmonde (2005). The Earth of Coco Chanel: Friends, Fashion, Fame. Thames & Hudson. ISBN978-0-500-51216-half-dozen.
  • Davis, Mary (Dec 2006). "Chanel, Stravinsky, and Musical Chichi". Fashion Theory. x (4): 431–lx. doi:10.2752/136270406778664986. S2CID 194197301.
  • Fiemeyer, Isabelle (2011). Intimate Chanel. Flammarion. ISBN978-ii-080-30162-8.
  • Madsen, Axel (2009). Coco Chanel: A Biography. Bloomsbury Publishing PLC. ISBN978-1408805817.
  • Morand, Paul (2009). The Attraction of Chanel. Pushkin Press. ISBN978-1-901285-98-7.
  • Simon, Linda (2011). Coco Chanel. Reaktion Books. ISBN978-1-86189-859-three. (Reviewed in The Montreal Review)
  • Smith, Nancy (2017). Churchill on the Riviera: Winston Churchill, Wendy Reves, and the Villa La Pausa Built by Coco Chanel. Biblio Publishing. ISBN978-1622493661.

External links [edit]

  • Official Site of Chanel
  • Coco Chanel at IMDb
  • Gabrielle Chanel at FMD
  • Coco Chanel in the Art Deco Era
  • Lisa Chaney on Coco Chanel on YouTube
  • Coco Chanel 1969 interview on YouTube
  • Interactive timeline of couture houses and couturier biographies Victoria and Albert Museum
  • Coco Chanel at Notice a Grave

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